Machining Difficult-to-Cut Materials - Basic Principles and Challenges

Preface

Contents

1 Introduction

Abstract

1.1 Historical Background

1.1.1 Stone Age

1.1.2 Bronze Age

1.1.3 Iron Age

1.2 Modern Engineering Materials

1.2.1 Steels

1.2.2 Titanium and Its Alloys

1.2.3 Superalloys

1.2.4 Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

1.2.5 Ceramics

1.3 Superior Characteristics, Major Challenges

Reference

2 Hardened Steels

Abstract

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Heat Treatment

2.1.2 Cryogenic Treatment

2.1.3 Case Hardening

2.1.3.1 Carburizing

2.1.3.2 Gas Nitriding

2.1.3.3 Induction Hardening

2.1.3.4 Flame Hardening

2.2 Historical Background and Evolution of Hardened Steels

2.3 Metallurgy of Hardened Steels

2.4 Characteristics of Hardened Steels

2.4.1 High Indentation Hardness

2.4.2 Low Ductility (Brittleness)

2.4.3 High Hardness/E-modulus Ratio

2.4.4 Corrosion Sensitivity

2.5 Industrial Applications of Hardened Steels

2.5.1 Applications of Case-Hardened Steels

2.5.2 Applications of Induction Hardened Steels

2.5.3 Applications of Carburized Steels

2.6 Challenges in the Machining of Hardened Steels

2.7 Hard Turning

2.7.1 Hard Turning as an Alternative for Grinding

2.7.2 Special Features of Hard Turning

2.7.3 Rigidity Imposed Limitations in Hard Turning

2.7.4 Surface Quality and Integrity

2.7.4.1 Formation of White Layer

2.7.4.2 Residual Stresses

2.7.4.3 Material Side Flow

2.8 Mechanics of Chip Formation During Hard Turning

2.9 Influential Factors on Chip Formation During Hard Turning

2.9.1 Nose Radius

2.9.2 Edge Preparation and Tool Condition

2.9.3 Feed

2.10 Dynamics of Chip Formation

2.11 Cutting Forces During Hard Turning

2.12 Appropriate Tool Materials for Hard Turning

2.12.1 CBN and PCBN Tools

2.12.2 Ceramic Tools

2.12.3 Cermet (Solid Titanium Carbide) Tools

2.13 Surface Finish in Hard Turning

2.14 Environmentally Friendly Hard Turning

2.15 Hard Milling

2.16 Concluding Remarks

References

3 Titanium and Titanium Alloys

Abstract

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Historical Background and Evolution of Titanium

3.3 Metallurgy of Titanium

3.3.1 Alpha (?) Alloys

3.3.2 Near-Alpha (?) Alloys

3.3.3 Alpha-Beta (??+??) Alloys

3.3.4 Metastable Beta (?) Alloys

3.3.5 Beta (?) Alloys

3.3.6 Titanium Aluminides

3.4 Characteristics of Titanium and Its Alloys

3.5 Industrial Applications of Titanium and Its Alloys

3.5.1 Aerospace Applications

3.5.2 Chemical and Petrochemical Applications

3.5.3 Automotive Applications

3.6 Challenges in the Machining of Titanium and Its Alloys

3.6.1 Poor Thermal Conductivity

3.6.2 Chemical Reactivity

3.6.3 Low Modulus of Elasticity

3.6.4 Hardening Effect

3.7 Mechanics of Chip Formation

3.7.1 Chip Segmentation Under Adiabatic Shear

3.8 Appropriate Tool Materials and Modes of Tool Wear

3.8.1 HSS Tools

3.8.2 Carbide Tools

3.8.3 Ceramic Tools

3.8.4 CBN and PCBN Tools

3.8.5 Diamond Tools

3.9 Application of Coolant in the Machining of Titanium

3.9.1 Utilization of Nano-cutting Fluids

3.10 Concluding Remarks

References

4 Superalloys

Abstract

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Historical Background and Evolution of Superalloys

4.3 Metallurgy of Superalloys

4.3.1 Phases of Superalloys

4.3.1.1 Gamma (?) Phase

4.3.1.2 Gamma Prime (??) Phase

4.3.1.3 Gamma Double Prime (??) Phase

4.3.1.4 Carbides

4.3.2 Strengthening Mechanisms

4.4 Detailed Classification of Superalloys

4.4.1 Iron-Based Superalloys

4.4.2 Nickel-Based Superalloys

4.4.3 Cobalt-Based Superalloys

4.5 Characteristics of Superalloys

4.5.1 Tensile and Yield Properties

4.5.2 Creep Resistance

4.5.3 Fatigue Resistance

4.5.4 Corrosion Resistance

4.6 Industrial Applications of Superalloys

4.6.1 Application of Superalloys in Gas Turbines and Jet Engines

4.7 Challenges in the Machining of Superalloys

4.7.1 High Hot Hardness and Strength

4.7.2 High Dynamic Shear Strength

4.7.3 Low Thermal Conductivity

4.7.4 Formation of Built-up Edge

4.7.5 Austenitic Matrix and Work Hardening During Machining

4.7.6 Abrasiveness

4.8 Mechanics of Chip Formation in Machining of Superalloys

4.9 Tool Materials for Conventional Machining of Superalloys

4.9.1 Appropriate Cutting Tools for Turning of Superalloys

4.9.2 Appropriate Cutting Tools for Milling of Superalloys

4.9.3 Modes of Tool Wear When Machining Superalloys

4.10 Application of Coolant in the Machining of Superalloys

4.11 Concluding Remarks

References

5 Metal Matrix Composites

Abstract

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Historical Background and Evolution of MMCs

5.2.1 First Generation

5.2.2 Second Generation

5.2.3 Third Generation

5.2.4 Fourth Generation

5.3 Characteristics of Metal Matrix Composites

5.3.1 High-Strength and Improved Transverse Properties

5.3.2 High Stiffness and Toughness

5.3.3 High Operational Temperature

5.3.4 Low Sensitivity to Surface Defects

5.3.5 Good Thermal and Electrical Conductivity

5.4 Classifications of Metal Matrix Composites

5.4.1 Classification of MMCs Based on Matrix Materials

5.4.1.1 Aluminum Alloys

5.4.1.2 Titanium Alloys

5.4.1.3 Magnesium Alloys

5.4.1.4 Cobalt

5.4.1.5 Copper

5.4.1.6 Silver

5.4.1.7 Nickel

5.4.1.8 Niobium

5.4.1.9 Intermetallic Compounds

5.4.2 Classification of MMCs Based on the Type of Reinforcement

5.4.2.1 Particle-Reinforced MMCs

5.4.2.2 Discontinuous Fiber-Reinforced MMCs

5.4.2.3 Continuous Fiber and Sheet-Reinforced MMCs

5.5 Industrial Applications of Metal Matrix Composites

5.5.1 Aerospace Applications

5.5.2 Automotive and Transportation Applications

5.6 Challenges in the Machining of Metal Matrix Composites

5.6.1 Machining of Particulate-Reinforced MMCs

5.6.1.1 Chip Formation in the Machining of Particulate-Reinforced MMCs

5.6.1.2 Cutting Forces in the Machining of Particulate-Reinforced MMCs

5.6.2 Machining of Fiber-Reinforced MMCs

5.6.2.1 Chip Formation When {{\varvec \uptheta}} = {\bf 0^\circ}

5.6.2.2 Chip Formation When {{\bf 0}}^\circ \le{\varvec \theta}\le {{\bf 90}}^\circ

5.6.2.3 Chip Formation When {\bf 90^\circ} \le{\varvec \theta}\le {\bf 180^\circ}

5.7 Appropriate Tools Materials and Modes of Tool Wear

5.7.1 Analytical Modeling of Wear Progression

5.8 Concluding Remarks

References

6 Ceramics

Abstract

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Historical Background and Evolution of Ceramics

6.3 Material Structure of Ceramics

6.3.1 Polycrystalline Ceramics Made by Sintering

6.3.2 Glass

6.3.3 Glass Ceramics

6.3.4 Single Crystals of Ceramic Compositions

6.3.5 Chemical Synthesis or Bonding

6.3.6 Natural Ceramics

6.4 Characteristics of Ceramic Materials

6.4.1 Brittleness

6.4.2 Poor Electrical and Thermal Conductivity

6.4.3 Compressive Strength

6.4.4 Chemical Insensitivity

6.5 Industrial Applications of Ceramics

6.5.1 Structural Applications

6.5.2 Electronic Applications

6.5.3 Bio-Applications

6.5.4 Coating Applications

6.5.5 Composites Applications

6.6 Challenges in the Machining of Ceramics

6.7 Mechanism of Chip Formation

6.8 Turning of Ceramic Materials

6.9 Grinding of Ceramic Materials

6.10 Ultrasonic Machining of Ceramic Materials

6.11 Abrasive Water Jet Machining of Ceramic Materials

6.12 Electrical Discharge Machining of Ceramic Materials

6.13 Laser Machining of Ceramic Materials

6.14 Application of Coolant in the Machining of Ceramics

6.15 Concluding Remarks

References

7 Environmentally Conscious Machining

Abstract

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Traditional Cutting Fluids

7.2.1 Non-Water-Miscible Cutting Fluids

7.2.2 Water-Miscible and Water-Based Cutting Fluids

7.2.3 Gaseous, Air, and Air–Oil Mists (Aerosols) Cutting Fluids

7.2.4 Cryogenic Cutting Fluids

7.3 Advanced Nano-Cutting Fluids

7.3.1 Characterization and Performance of Nano-Cutting Fluids

7.3.2 Challenges in the Application of Nano-Cutting Fluids

7.4 Delivery Methods of Cutting Fluids

7.4.1 Low-Pressure Flood Cooling

7.4.2 High-Pressure Flood Cooling

7.4.3 High-Pressure Through-Tool Cooling

7.4.4 Mist Cooling

7.5 Cutting Fluids and Their Consequent Health Hazards

7.5.1 Toxicity

7.5.2 Dermatitis

7.5.3 Respiratory Disorders

7.5.4 Microbial Disorders

7.5.5 Cancer

7.6 Environmental Considerations in Machining

7.6.1 Machining with Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL)

7.6.2 Dry Machining

7.7 Special Cutting Tools

7.7.1 Self-propelled Rotary Tools

7.7.1.1 Self-Cooling Feature of Rotary Tools

7.8 Machining Titanium and Superalloys Using Rotary Tools

7.9 Machining Hardened Steels Using Rotary Tools

7.10 Concluding Remarks

References

Index